Scientific paper - Wildcard

People and rewilding: opposition and opportunities

Gesche Schifferdecker on July 29, 2026

Rewilding of former agricultural land in Friuli Venezia Giulia

Blogpost by Clara Jeanroy

200 million football fields.

200 million football fields are the size of agricultural areas abandoned in Europe since the 1990s, especially in regions like the Iberian Peninsula, the Alps and the Carpathians mountains.
What to do with all this land? In many cases the alternative is to “rewild”, which means promoting natural processes whilst minimizing human management. This can be achieved differently: One option is to let landscape evolve naturally with eventually, abandoned agricultural fields turning into forests (called “passive rewilding”) and forests that were managed reaching their full ecological potential (called “proforestation”). Meanwhile, another option is to reintroduce emblematic and locally instinct species like the beaver or the lynx (called “trophic” or “active rewilding”). However, people, and especially local communities, do not always welcome these changes.

For our recent study “Perceptions of rewilding in European abandoned agricultural lands”, we reviewed 80 articles to understand perceptions relating to rewilding in Europe.

Overall, rural, older and farming respondents typically opposed rewilding and preferred traditional land management. This was mostly because these communities are attached to the land and livelihood they grew up in, and they perceived rewilding as a threat to those. Meanwhile, younger and urban individuals, such as tourists, were usually more positive towards the conversion of abandoned agricultural areas into forests. When criticizing rewilding, people mostly dreaded impacts on the landscape (e.g. homogenizing the landscape or increased fire risk), and on economic activities (e.g. reducing food production). Feelings of fear or unsafety were also often mentioned along with feeling of injustice, specifically concerning active rewilding. Indeed, some people felt that wildlife and wilderness were prioritised over already marginalised humans.

Figure: Agricultural abandonment hotspot map with location of data collection sites of the case-studies. The agricultural abandonment hotspots were determined by combining data on both projected and existing abandonment. Map lines delineate study areas and do not necessarily depict accepted national boundaries.

To limit this feeling and conflict in general, we found that practitioners should focus on trust building, stakeholder engagement and financial support (e.g. subsidies which are powerful tools to promote acceptability). For the successful and fair re-naturalisation of abandoned agricultural areas, we advocate for better alignment between actors’ perspectives and rewilding objectives. In fire-prone regions for example, many oppose passive rewilding because it can fuel fire risk (more shrubs and vegetation that dries out in summer). Meanwhile, using active rewilding can limit this risk (e.g. herbivores consume the inflammable vegetation) and consequently reduce the conflict.

For next steps in research, more studies on perceptions are needed in the Carpathians and Baltic regions, which face strong yet more recent abandonment (20 to 30 years later than the Alps because agricultural abandonment only started after the Socialist period). In addition, while many papers look at attitudes towards active and passive rewilding, we mostly lack studies towards “proforestation” (passive rewilding of managed forests).

Lastly, timeline is crucial. Interestingly, some studies showed that people feared less Bisons after their reintroduction. This illustrates that attitudes are dynamic and evolve with knowledge and experience, particularly in the case of rewilding which can take decades to unfold and involve uncertainty. As such, we need more long-term understanding of perceptions with studies in later-stages of rewilding processes.

Reference: Jeanroy, C. G., Smith, A. M., & Verburg, P. H. (2026). Perceptions of rewilding in European abandoned agricultural lands. Landscape and Urban Planning, 274, 105715. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.LANDURBPLAN.2026.105715

Featured image: Rewilding of former agricultural land in Friuli Venezia Giulia (photo: Alessandro Foscari)

Priority actions for the conservation of primary and old-growth forests in Europe

Admin on June 29, 2026

Blogpost by Lyla O’Brien

The first time I walked through a primary forest in the Low Tatras in Slovakia, I was struck by how different it looked and felt from the forests I had known before. Woody fungi called Polypores, larger than both of my hands emerged from the deadwood littered across the forest floor. Spruce trees bore horizontal scars left by three toed woodpeckers searching for insects beneath the bark. Beneath a tree more than 200 years old, a patch of cleared earth marked the resting place of a brown bear. At every step, the forest revealed something new and unexpected.

These remaining primary and old-growth forests offer a rare glimpse into ecosystems that existed before centuries of intensive land use and forest management reshaped much of Europe. Today, however, they survive only in small, isolated fragments and continue to decline rapidly due to logging. Their loss is of particular concern because these forests support exceptionally high levels of biodiversity and provide important ecosystem services like carbon storage and water regulation.

Ecosystem services: old growth forest in Slovakia (photo: Lyla O’Brien)

Together with other researchers, I published a perspective article in Conservation Letters, titled Priority actions for the conservation of primary and old-growth forests in Europe. In the article, we examine how the recently adopted Nature Restoration Regulation could strengthen the long-term conservation of Europe’s remaining primary and old-growth forests. Although the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 calls for their strict protection, the target is not legally binding and implementation has progressed slowly. We argue that, despite not explicitly referring to primary and old-growth forests, the Regulation nonetheless presents an exceptional opportunity to advance their conservation.

We therefore identify four key problems for the conservation of these forests and propose four accompanying actions that we consider most urgent, while exploring how the Regulation could support their implementation (Table 1).

First, incomplete mapping and weak protection should be addressed by identifying barriers and introducing a logging moratorium for unprotected forests, including those that are unmapped.

Second, human pressures should be reduced in and around primary and old-growth forests by banning logging, avoiding new roads, limiting infrastructure and recreation, and regulating hunting practices.

Third, because many forests are too small and fragmented, strict protection should be expanded and buffer zones established to maintain ecological processes and reduce external anthropogenic disturbances.

Fourth, connectivity between isolated forest patches should be improved and new old-growth forests should be developed through active restoration or by letting nature recover on its own passively.

The paper shows that conserving Europe’s primary and old-growth forests requires more than formal protection goals; it needs targeted, complementary action, which can be implemented under the Nature Restoration Regulation.

Table 1: Priority actions for improving the conservation of primary and old-growth forests in the EU and relevant articles for achieving them embedded in the National Restoration Regulation

Problem	Priority action	Key elements	Link to NRR
Significant gaps in mapping and protection	1. Assess progress and address barriers to identification, mapping, and protection; implement a logging moratorium	Identify implementation barriers to mapping and protection; integrate findings into EU progress assessments; impose a moratorium on mapped but unprotected and potential primary and old-growth forests	Article 4(12) non-deterioration clause
Anthropogenic impacts, also in protected forests	2. Prevent degradation from anthropogenic pressures and protect natural processes	No new forest roads; no logging; limited infrastructure and recreation; relocation of ungulate hunting; ban on supplementary feeding	Article 4(12) non-deterioration clause
Small, fragmented patches, limiting natural disturbance dynamics and increasing vulnerability	3. Expand strict protection and establish buffer zones around primary and old-growth forests	Expand strictly protected area to meet minimum dynamic area; Establish protection and conservation buffer zones	Article 4(1) restoration of degraded habitat types listed in Annex 1 to good condition; Article 12(1) enhancement of forest; Article 12(3) increase in the national trend for at least six of the following seven indicators for forest biodiversity: standing deadwood, lying deadwood, share of forests with uneven-aged structure, forest connectivity, stock of organic carbon, and share of forests dominated by native tree species and tree species diversity
Fragmentation and isolation, which threatens persistence of associated species, lack of representative network of primary and old-growth forests	4. Improve connectivity between primary and old-growth forests and create secondary old-growth forests through restoration	Restore patches of land to reconnect forests and promote secondary old-growth forests through passive and active restoration

With this article, we urge EU Member States to incorporate these priority actions into their national restoration plans before the end of 2026, providing an opportunity for the EU to move beyond broad political commitments toward concrete conservation outcomes for some of Europe’s most valuable and threatened forests.

Reference: O’Brien, L., Castelli, F., Felton, A., Kuemmerle, T., Mikoláš, M., Munteanu, C., Sabatini, F. M., Svensson, J., Svoboda, M., Vandekerkhove, K., Winkel, G., & Lindner, M. (2026). Priority actions for the conservation of primary and old-growth forests in Europe. Conservation Letters. https://doi.org/10.1111/con4.70054

New paper reveals proforestation benefits for biodiversity in Mediterranean and Alpine forests

Sara Uzquiano on May 26, 2026

Forests are more than collections of trees – they are living systems shaped by time, disturbance, and the countless microhabitats that sustain biodiversity. A new WILDCARD study titled “Beyond management: Proforestation enriches tree-related microhabitat diversity, but forest types determine their composition across Mediterranean and Alpine forests” sheds light on how allowing forests to grow naturally over long periods can significantly enhance their ecological complexity.

The research explored the effects of proforestation – the practice of allowing existing forests to continue growing naturally with minimal or no logging and limited human intervention – across three contrasting forest categories ranging from Mediterranean oak systems to Alpine coniferous and mountainous beech forests. By comparing actively managed stands with forests abandoned for more than 20 and more than 60 years, the study examined how time since abandonment (TSA) influences the development of tree-related microhabitats (TreMs).

TreMs include small but ecologically critical features such as cavities, cracks, bark loss, dead branches, fungal conks, and insect galleries. These structures provide habitat, shelter, and feeding resources for a wide variety of organisms including birds, bats, insects, fungi, and plants. As indicators of forest structural complexity, TreMs are increasingly used in biodiversity monitoring and forest conservation planning across Europe.

The results of the study revealed a clear pattern: in most forest types, longer periods without management promoted greater richness and abundance of TreMs. The strongest effects were observed in Alpine coniferous forests and mountainous beech forests, where unmanaged stands accumulated more deadwood and supported a broader diversity of microhabitats linked to ageing and natural decay processes.

Results of TSA effects on TreM indices across three forest categories:

However, the study also demonstrated that there is no universal trajectory of forest recovery. Mediterranean thermophilous deciduous forests (forests found in relatively warm Mediterranean climates that are dominated by trees which lose their leaves seasonally) showed a weaker response to abandonment, suggesting that structural ageing processes occur more slowly in these systems. The researchers propose that oak-dominated Mediterranean forests may require much longer timeframes – potentially over 90 years without management – before strong old-growth characteristics fully emerge.

Importantly, the research moved beyond simply counting microhabitats. It also investigated how TreM composition changes over time. The findings showed that proforestation not only increases the number of microhabitats but gradually reshapes the entire assemblage of ecological structures present within a forest. Long-abandoned stands increasingly hosted TreMs associated with decomposition, senescence (gradual biological ageing process of an organism or its tissues), and standing deadwood, while some microhabitats linked to active forestry operations became less common.

At the same time, responses varied strongly depending on local conditions, forest history, topography, and tree species composition. Certain TreMs, such as insect galleries and exposed sapwood, increased mainly where standing dead trees accumulated, while others were more influenced by silvicultural disturbance or terrain characteristics. This highlights the importance of understanding forest dynamics within their ecological context rather than applying one-size-fits-all management assumptions.

The study offers important implications for biodiversity-oriented forest planning. As Europe seeks effective nature-based solutions for climate mitigation and ecosystem restoration, proforestation emerges as a valuable strategy not only for carbon storage but also for enhancing habitat diversity and ecological integrity. Integrating long-term unmanaged stands into forest landscapes can help create the structural conditions required by many specialised species that depend on old-growth characteristics.

Ultimately, the research reinforces a simple but powerful message: when forests are given time, they develop complexity that management alone cannot easily reproduce. Protecting existing forests and allowing natural processes to unfold may therefore play a central role in safeguarding biodiversity across both Mediterranean and Alpine ecosystems.

Reference: Marcoz, G., Tomao, A., Bitunjac, D., Boscutti, F., Duvaltier, C., Marjanović, H., Orzan, L., Piazza, N., & Alberti, G. (2026). Beyond management: Proforestation enriches tree-related microhabitat diversity, but forest types determine their composition across Mediterranean and Alpine forests. Forest Ecology and Management, 614, 10.1016/j.foreco.2026.123827

Featured image and photo by Guido Marcoz

Soil Carbon Sequestration Following Natural Vegetation Recovery on Abandoned European Lands: Review and Research Needs

Gesche Schifferdecker on May 21, 2026

A new WILDCARD study published in the European Journal of Soil Science highlights the important role that natural vegetation recovery on abandoned agricultural land can play in climate change mitigation across Europe. The review paper, “Soil Carbon Sequestration Following Natural Vegetation Recovery on Abandoned European Lands: Review and Research Needs”, brings together evidence from 36 studies to better understand how soil organic carbon (SOC) changes after farmland abandonment.

Led by Mohammad Tahsin Karimi Nezhad and co-authored by Domagoj Gajski, Clara G. Jeanroy, Peter H. Verburg, Giorgio Alberti, and Pavel Šamonil, the review demonstrates that abandoned croplands undergoing natural regeneration can become valuable carbon sinks over time. In particular, croplands transitioning into mixed and broadleaf forests showed strong increases in SOC, especially in Mediterranean regions and in soil groups such as Regosols, Cambisols, and Calcisols.

The study also reveals important knowledge gaps. Most available research is concentrated in Mediterranean Europe, while regions such as Central France, Germany, Poland, the Baltic states, the Balkans, and the United Kingdom remain underrepresented. The authors stress the need for more long-term studies across different climates, soil types, and vegetation systems to improve understanding of soil carbon dynamics at the continental scale.

Importantly, the paper emphasizes that natural vegetation recovery should not be viewed as a blanket recommendation for widespread cropland abandonment. Instead, land-use decisions must balance ecological, economic, and societal considerations alongside climate benefits.

The findings provide valuable guidance for researchers, land managers, and policymakers working to strengthen nature-based solutions and soil carbon monitoring across Europe.

Reference: Karimi Nezhad, M. T., Gajski, D., Jeanroy, C. G., Verburg, P. H., Alberti, G., & Šamonil, P. (2026). Soil Carbon Sequestration Following Natural Vegetation Recovery on Abandoned European Lands: Review and Research Needs. European Journal of Soil Science. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejss.70333

Featured image: Blätter Wald Natur via Pixabay (photo by ArtTower)

When forests return: carbon gains and biodiversity trade-offs

Gesche Schifferdecker on May 18, 2026

by Lorenzo Orzan

Across Europe, something quiet but powerful is happening. As people leave rural areas, forests are coming back, slowly reclaiming former meadows and pastures. At first glance, this seems like good news. More forests mean more carbon stored and, potentially, more biodiversity. But is it really that simple?

In our recent study across Italy, we followed this process from North to South, tracking how ecosystems change over time as forests naturally regenerate. By comparing sites at different stages, from open grasslands to forests up to 75 years old, we were able to reconstruct what happens when trees return.

The first answer is clear: carbon storage increases steadily. As forests grow, trees accumulate large amounts of carbon, becoming the main storage pool. In the oldest stands, carbon stocks can reach very high levels, highlighting the strong potential of natural reforestation for climate mitigation. But there is another side to the story: As forests close, light becomes scarce. Many herbaceous species that thrive in open habitats start to disappear. Across most of our study sites, plant diversity peaked in meadows and early stages and then declined as forests matured. In other words, gaining carbon often meant losing plant diversity. Yet, the picture is not entirely uniform. In the southernmost site, under Mediterranean conditions, plant diversity initially declined as forests became denser, but partially recovered again in the oldest stands, suggesting that mature forests can recreate suitable conditions for a richer understory vegetation. This suggests that, in some contexts, forests may eventually host both high carbon stocks and a richer understory. These findings highlight an important message for rewilding and land management: natural forest expansion is not automatically a win-win solution. It can involve trade-offs between climate mitigation and biodiversity conservation.

The challenge, moving forward, is to understand where and when these trade-offs can be reduced. Under the right conditions and given enough time, forests may offer opportunities to balance both goals. Until then, letting forests return remains a powerful tool, although it needs to be used with awareness of what we gain, and what we might lose along the way.

References: Orzan, L., Tomao, A., Antoniella, G., Bonari, G., Casolo, V., Chiti, T., Cingano, P., Foscari, A., Incerti, G., Panico, S. C., Piazza, N., Trotta, G., & Alberti, G. (Year). As forests reclaim the land: Latitudinal variations in carbon-biodiversity trade-offs under natural forest expansion in Italy. Forest Ecology and Management, Volume 605, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2026.123527

Old-growth forests in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro harbour highest continental carbon sink in Europe, finds new paper

Santiago Alarcón on April 25, 2024

Old-growth forests continue to disappear in Europe, with many being logged before their identification and protection. To help map these important ecosystems for conservation and research, a new paper by WILDCARD researchers uses rigorous criteria to identify old-growth mountain forest stands in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro that have reached their last stage of ecosystem dynamics.

Co-authored by WILDCARD researchers Renzo Motta (University of Turin), Giorgio Alberti (University of Udine) and Davide Ascoli (University of Turin), the paper looks into a network of four mixed montane old-growth forests in the Dinaric Alps of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro, one of the few regions in temperate Europe that still holds old-growth forests. Strict indicators were applied to investigate forests characterised by structure, disturbance history and processes typical and exclusive of the last stage of the forest dynamic.

The researchers found that the studied old-growth sites harbour a high amount of living biomass, including ample presence of trees larger than 1 meter at breast height and older than 400 years. The sites were also found to have a high biomass of wood from dead trees. This results in the highest forest carbon sink at the continental level in Europe, totalling 398-484 Mg C ha^-1. The Dinaric old-growth forest network presents robust indicators of old-growthness, similar structure, and dynamic processes across all four investigated sites, representing high-priority sites for forest protection.

Although the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 provides a broad definition of old-growth forests, using strict indicators to map specific old-growth forest areas is important for both forest conservation and research, as it contributes to the establishment of conservation priorities, offers reliable reference sites for ecosystem restoration, and helps to further ongoing research on the structural differences between managed and unmanaged forests.

In most EU countries, very few old-growth forests remain and they are typically small and isolated. While the EU Biodiversity Strategy mandates their legal protection, old-growth forest loss continues unabated, with less than 1.5 million hectares of old-growth forests remaining in Europe.

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Download the open-access paper: “Old-growth forests in the Dinaric Alps of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro: a continental hot-spot for research and biodiversity”.